Current - Issue
Year 2026 · Volume 6 · Issue 5
Original Article
Sustainable Fabrication and Characterization of Zinc Nanoparticles Utilizing the Medicinal Herb Stachytarpheta indica
Piyush Joshi1
Laxmi Kant Pandey2
1 Department of Biotechnology, Mansarovar Global University, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
Published Online: September-October 2026
Pages: 229-236
Cite this article
↗ https://www.doi.org/10.59256/ijrtmr.20260605026References
[1]. Alavi, M., & Karimi, N. (2021). Biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using plant extracts: A review on sustainable approach and
application. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 334, 116-128.
[2]. Al-Sharqi, A., El-Sayed, M., & Hamza, A. (2020). Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using aqueous extract of Deverra tortuosa
and their cytotoxic activities. Scientific Reports, 10, 1-11.
[3]. Colon, G., Ward, B. C., & Webster, T. J. (2006). Increased osteoblast and decreased Staphylococcus epidermidis functions on nanophase
ZnO and TiO2. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, 78(3), 595–604. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.30789
[4]. Dwivedi, S., Wahab, R., Khan, F., Mishra, Y. K., Musarrat, J., & Al-Khedhairy, A. A. (2014). Reactive oxygen species mediated bacterial
biofilm inhibition via zinc oxide nanoparticles and their statistical determination. PLOS ONE, 9(11), e111289.
[5]. Handa, S. S., Khanuja, S. P. S., Longo, G., & Rakesh, D. D. (2008). Extraction technologies for medicinal and aromatic plants.
International Centre for Science and High Technology.
[6]. Happy, A., Soumya, M., Venkat Kumar, S., Rajeshkumar, S., Sheba, R. D., Lakshmi, T., & Deepak Nallaswamy, V. (2019). Phyto-
assisted synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Cassia alata and its antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli. Bi ochemistry and
Biophysics Reports, 17, 208–211.
[7]. Jain, D., Kachhwaha, S., Kothari, S. L., & Kachhwaha, D. (2020). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Ocimum sanctum and
their antimicrobial activity. Journal of Nanotechnology, 2020, 1-9.
[8]. Jan, H., Shah, M., Andleeb, A., & Hussain, S. (2020). Biogenic synthesis and characterization of antimicrobial and antiparasitic zinc
oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles using aqueous extracts of the Himalayan Columbine (Aquilegia pubiflora). Frontiers in Materials, 7, 249.
[9]. Jiang, W., Mashayekhi, H., & Xing, B. (2009). Bacterial toxicity comparison between nano- and micro-scaled oxide particles.
Environmental Pollution, 157(5), 1619–1625.
[10]. Kasemets, K., Ivask, A., Dubourguier, H.-C., & Kahru, A. (2009). Toxicity of nanoparticles of ZnO, CuO and TiO2 to yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Toxicology in Vitro, 23(6), 1116–1122.
[11]. Leung, Y., Chan, C., Ng, A., Chan, H., Chiang, M., Djurišić, A., Ng, Y., Jim, W., Guo, M., & Leung, F. (2012). Antibacterial activity of
ZnO nanoparticles with a modified surface under ambient illumination. Nanotechnology, 23(47), 475703.
[12]. Li, M., Zhu, L., & Lin, D. (2011). Toxicity of ZnO nanoparticles to Escherichia coli: Mechanism and the influence of medium
components. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(5), 1977–1983.
[13]. Mittal, A. K., Chisti, Y., & Banerjee, U. C. (2021). Synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using plant extracts. Biotechnology Advances,
39, 107442.
[14]. Muhammad, W., Ullah, N., Haroon, M., & Abbasi, B. H. (2019). Optical, morphological and biological analysis of zinc oxide
nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using Papaver somniferum L. RSC Advances, 9, 29541-29548.
[15]. Ovais, M., Khalil, A. T., Raza, A., & Islam, N. U. (2019). Green synthesis of silver and zinc oxide nanoparticles using Salvia officinalis
and their enhanced antimicrobial activities. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 14, 6185-6200.
[16]. Padmavathy, N., & Vijayaraghavan, R. (2008). Enhanced bioactivity of ZnO nanoparticles—an antimicrobial study. Science and
Technology of Advanced Materials, 9(3), 035004.
[17]. Pasquet, J., Chevalier, Y., Pelletier, J., Couval, E., Bouvier, D., & Bolzinger, M.-A. (2014). The contribution of zinc ions to the
antimicrobial activity of zinc oxide. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 457, 263–274.
[18]. Peng, X., Palma, S., Fisher, N. S., & Wong, S. S. (2011). Effect of morphology of ZnO nanostructures on their toxicity to marine algae.
Aquatic Toxicology, 102(3), 186–196.
[19]. Premanathan, M., Karthikeyan, K., Jeyasubramanian, K., & Manivannan, G. (2011). Selective toxicity of ZnO nanoparticles toward
Gram-positive bacteria and cancer cells by apoptosis through lipid peroxidation. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology, and
Medicine, 7(2), 184–192.
[20]. Rajiv, P., Rajeshwari, S., & Vanathi, P. (2017). Green synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Moringa oleifera
flower extract. International Journal of Nanoscience, 16(2), 175-189.
[21]. Ramesh, M., Anbuvannan, M., & Viruthagiri, G. (2014). Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Solanum nigrum leaf extract and
their antibacterial activity. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 136, 864–870.
[22]. Reddy, K. M., Feris, K., Bell, J., Wingett, D. G., Hanley, C., & Punnoose, A. (2007). Selective toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles to
prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems. Applied Physics Letters, 90(21), 213902.
[23]. Sawai, J. (2003). Quantitative evaluation of antibacterial activities of metallic oxide powders (ZnO, MgO and CaO) by conductimetric
assay. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 54(2), 177–182.
[24]. Sharma, D., Rajput, J., Kaith, B. S., Kaur, M., & Sharma, S. (2020). Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Eclipta alba and their
antimicrobial efficacy. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, 105, 104-113.
[25]. Sharma, G., Nam, J. S., Sharma, A. R., & Lee, S. S. (2018). Antimicrobial potential of silver nanoparticles synthesized using medicinal
herb Coptidis rhizome. Molecules, 23(9), 2268.[26]. Sharma, V., Das, S., & Thakur, S. (2019). Flavonoids in traditional medicinal plants: A review of their role in health and disease. Journal
of Herbal Medicine, 15(1), 45–55.
[27]. Siddiqi, K. S., Rahman, A., Tajuddin, S., & Husen, A. (2018). Properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their activity against microbes.
Nanoscale Research Letters, 13, 141.
[28]. Singh, P., Pandit, S., Beshay, M., Mokkapati, V. R., & Umapathi, R. (2018). Phytochemical-assisted synthesis of nanoparticles for
biomedical applications. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 19(4), 2717–2733.
[29]. Sirelkhatim, A., Mahmud, S., Seeni, A., Mohamad Kaus, N. H., Ann, L. C., Mohd Bakhori, S. K., Hasan, H., & Mohamad, D. (2015).
Review on zinc oxide nanoparticles: Antibacterial activity and toxicity mechanism. Nano-Micro Letters, 7, 219–242.
[30]. Stan, M., Popa, A., Toloman, D., Silipas, T. D., & Vodnar, D. C. (2016). Antibacterial and antioxidant activities of ZnO nanoparticles
synthesized using extracts of Allium sativum, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Ocimum basilicum. Acta Metallurgica Sinica (English Letters),
29, 228–236.
[31]. Sundrarajan, M., Ambika, S., & Bharathi, K. (2015). Plant-extract mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Pongamia pinnata and
their activity against pathogenic bacteria. Advanced Powder Technology, 26(5), 1294–1299.
[32]. Suresh, D., Nethravathi, P. C., Rajanaika, H., Nagabhushana, H., & Sharma, S. C. (2015). Green synthesis of multifunctional zinc oxide
(ZnO) nanoparticles using Cassia fistula plant extract and their photodegradative, antioxidant and antibacterial activities. Materials
Science in Semiconductor Processing, 31, 446–454.
[33]. Valli, J. S., & Vaseeharan, B. (2012). Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by Cissus quadrangularis extracts. Materials Letters, 82, 171–
173.
[34]. Venkateasan, A., Prabakaran, R., & Sujatha, V. (2017). Phytoextract-mediated synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using aqueous leaves
extract of Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br revealing its biological properties and photocatalytic activity. Nanotechnology for Environmental
Engineering, 2(1).
[35]. Wang, X., Wu, H.-F., Kuang, Q., Huang, R.-B., Xie, Z.-X., & Zheng, L.-S. (2009). Shape-dependent antibacterial activities of Ag2O
polyhedral particles. Langmuir, 26(4), 2774–2778.
[36]. Xia, T., Kovochich, M., Liong, M., Mädler, L., Gilbert, B., Shi, H., Yeh, J. I., Zink, J. I., & Nel, A. E. (2008). Comparison of the
mechanism of toxicity of zinc oxide and cerium oxide nanoparticles based on dissolution and oxidative stress properties. ACS Nano,
2(10), 2121–2134.
[37]. Yang, H., Liu, C., Yang, D., Zhang, H., & Xi, Z. (2009). Comparative study of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity induced
by four typical nanomaterials: The role of particle size, shape and composition. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 29(1), 69–78.
application. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 334, 116-128.
[2]. Al-Sharqi, A., El-Sayed, M., & Hamza, A. (2020). Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using aqueous extract of Deverra tortuosa
and their cytotoxic activities. Scientific Reports, 10, 1-11.
[3]. Colon, G., Ward, B. C., & Webster, T. J. (2006). Increased osteoblast and decreased Staphylococcus epidermidis functions on nanophase
ZnO and TiO2. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, 78(3), 595–604. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.30789
[4]. Dwivedi, S., Wahab, R., Khan, F., Mishra, Y. K., Musarrat, J., & Al-Khedhairy, A. A. (2014). Reactive oxygen species mediated bacterial
biofilm inhibition via zinc oxide nanoparticles and their statistical determination. PLOS ONE, 9(11), e111289.
[5]. Handa, S. S., Khanuja, S. P. S., Longo, G., & Rakesh, D. D. (2008). Extraction technologies for medicinal and aromatic plants.
International Centre for Science and High Technology.
[6]. Happy, A., Soumya, M., Venkat Kumar, S., Rajeshkumar, S., Sheba, R. D., Lakshmi, T., & Deepak Nallaswamy, V. (2019). Phyto-
assisted synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Cassia alata and its antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli. Bi ochemistry and
Biophysics Reports, 17, 208–211.
[7]. Jain, D., Kachhwaha, S., Kothari, S. L., & Kachhwaha, D. (2020). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Ocimum sanctum and
their antimicrobial activity. Journal of Nanotechnology, 2020, 1-9.
[8]. Jan, H., Shah, M., Andleeb, A., & Hussain, S. (2020). Biogenic synthesis and characterization of antimicrobial and antiparasitic zinc
oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles using aqueous extracts of the Himalayan Columbine (Aquilegia pubiflora). Frontiers in Materials, 7, 249.
[9]. Jiang, W., Mashayekhi, H., & Xing, B. (2009). Bacterial toxicity comparison between nano- and micro-scaled oxide particles.
Environmental Pollution, 157(5), 1619–1625.
[10]. Kasemets, K., Ivask, A., Dubourguier, H.-C., & Kahru, A. (2009). Toxicity of nanoparticles of ZnO, CuO and TiO2 to yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Toxicology in Vitro, 23(6), 1116–1122.
[11]. Leung, Y., Chan, C., Ng, A., Chan, H., Chiang, M., Djurišić, A., Ng, Y., Jim, W., Guo, M., & Leung, F. (2012). Antibacterial activity of
ZnO nanoparticles with a modified surface under ambient illumination. Nanotechnology, 23(47), 475703.
[12]. Li, M., Zhu, L., & Lin, D. (2011). Toxicity of ZnO nanoparticles to Escherichia coli: Mechanism and the influence of medium
components. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(5), 1977–1983.
[13]. Mittal, A. K., Chisti, Y., & Banerjee, U. C. (2021). Synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using plant extracts. Biotechnology Advances,
39, 107442.
[14]. Muhammad, W., Ullah, N., Haroon, M., & Abbasi, B. H. (2019). Optical, morphological and biological analysis of zinc oxide
nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using Papaver somniferum L. RSC Advances, 9, 29541-29548.
[15]. Ovais, M., Khalil, A. T., Raza, A., & Islam, N. U. (2019). Green synthesis of silver and zinc oxide nanoparticles using Salvia officinalis
and their enhanced antimicrobial activities. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 14, 6185-6200.
[16]. Padmavathy, N., & Vijayaraghavan, R. (2008). Enhanced bioactivity of ZnO nanoparticles—an antimicrobial study. Science and
Technology of Advanced Materials, 9(3), 035004.
[17]. Pasquet, J., Chevalier, Y., Pelletier, J., Couval, E., Bouvier, D., & Bolzinger, M.-A. (2014). The contribution of zinc ions to the
antimicrobial activity of zinc oxide. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 457, 263–274.
[18]. Peng, X., Palma, S., Fisher, N. S., & Wong, S. S. (2011). Effect of morphology of ZnO nanostructures on their toxicity to marine algae.
Aquatic Toxicology, 102(3), 186–196.
[19]. Premanathan, M., Karthikeyan, K., Jeyasubramanian, K., & Manivannan, G. (2011). Selective toxicity of ZnO nanoparticles toward
Gram-positive bacteria and cancer cells by apoptosis through lipid peroxidation. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology, and
Medicine, 7(2), 184–192.
[20]. Rajiv, P., Rajeshwari, S., & Vanathi, P. (2017). Green synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Moringa oleifera
flower extract. International Journal of Nanoscience, 16(2), 175-189.
[21]. Ramesh, M., Anbuvannan, M., & Viruthagiri, G. (2014). Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Solanum nigrum leaf extract and
their antibacterial activity. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 136, 864–870.
[22]. Reddy, K. M., Feris, K., Bell, J., Wingett, D. G., Hanley, C., & Punnoose, A. (2007). Selective toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles to
prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems. Applied Physics Letters, 90(21), 213902.
[23]. Sawai, J. (2003). Quantitative evaluation of antibacterial activities of metallic oxide powders (ZnO, MgO and CaO) by conductimetric
assay. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 54(2), 177–182.
[24]. Sharma, D., Rajput, J., Kaith, B. S., Kaur, M., & Sharma, S. (2020). Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Eclipta alba and their
antimicrobial efficacy. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, 105, 104-113.
[25]. Sharma, G., Nam, J. S., Sharma, A. R., & Lee, S. S. (2018). Antimicrobial potential of silver nanoparticles synthesized using medicinal
herb Coptidis rhizome. Molecules, 23(9), 2268.[26]. Sharma, V., Das, S., & Thakur, S. (2019). Flavonoids in traditional medicinal plants: A review of their role in health and disease. Journal
of Herbal Medicine, 15(1), 45–55.
[27]. Siddiqi, K. S., Rahman, A., Tajuddin, S., & Husen, A. (2018). Properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their activity against microbes.
Nanoscale Research Letters, 13, 141.
[28]. Singh, P., Pandit, S., Beshay, M., Mokkapati, V. R., & Umapathi, R. (2018). Phytochemical-assisted synthesis of nanoparticles for
biomedical applications. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 19(4), 2717–2733.
[29]. Sirelkhatim, A., Mahmud, S., Seeni, A., Mohamad Kaus, N. H., Ann, L. C., Mohd Bakhori, S. K., Hasan, H., & Mohamad, D. (2015).
Review on zinc oxide nanoparticles: Antibacterial activity and toxicity mechanism. Nano-Micro Letters, 7, 219–242.
[30]. Stan, M., Popa, A., Toloman, D., Silipas, T. D., & Vodnar, D. C. (2016). Antibacterial and antioxidant activities of ZnO nanoparticles
synthesized using extracts of Allium sativum, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Ocimum basilicum. Acta Metallurgica Sinica (English Letters),
29, 228–236.
[31]. Sundrarajan, M., Ambika, S., & Bharathi, K. (2015). Plant-extract mediated synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Pongamia pinnata and
their activity against pathogenic bacteria. Advanced Powder Technology, 26(5), 1294–1299.
[32]. Suresh, D., Nethravathi, P. C., Rajanaika, H., Nagabhushana, H., & Sharma, S. C. (2015). Green synthesis of multifunctional zinc oxide
(ZnO) nanoparticles using Cassia fistula plant extract and their photodegradative, antioxidant and antibacterial activities. Materials
Science in Semiconductor Processing, 31, 446–454.
[33]. Valli, J. S., & Vaseeharan, B. (2012). Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by Cissus quadrangularis extracts. Materials Letters, 82, 171–
173.
[34]. Venkateasan, A., Prabakaran, R., & Sujatha, V. (2017). Phytoextract-mediated synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using aqueous leaves
extract of Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br revealing its biological properties and photocatalytic activity. Nanotechnology for Environmental
Engineering, 2(1).
[35]. Wang, X., Wu, H.-F., Kuang, Q., Huang, R.-B., Xie, Z.-X., & Zheng, L.-S. (2009). Shape-dependent antibacterial activities of Ag2O
polyhedral particles. Langmuir, 26(4), 2774–2778.
[36]. Xia, T., Kovochich, M., Liong, M., Mädler, L., Gilbert, B., Shi, H., Yeh, J. I., Zink, J. I., & Nel, A. E. (2008). Comparison of the
mechanism of toxicity of zinc oxide and cerium oxide nanoparticles based on dissolution and oxidative stress properties. ACS Nano,
2(10), 2121–2134.
[37]. Yang, H., Liu, C., Yang, D., Zhang, H., & Xi, Z. (2009). Comparative study of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity induced
by four typical nanomaterials: The role of particle size, shape and composition. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 29(1), 69–78.
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