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Review Article
Is Parenting Style a Cause or Consequence of ADHD: A Critical Review
Divya Bansal1
Kuldeep Singh Tomar2
1 2 Department of Psychology, Shri Venkateshwara University (SVU), Uttar Pradesh, India.
Published Online: May-June 2026
Pages: 87-93
Cite this article
↗ https://www.doi.org/10.59256/ijrtmr.20260603011References
1. American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th edn. American Psychiatric
Publishing, Washington DC.
2. Polanczyk GV, Willcutt EG, Salum GA, Kieling C, Rohde LA (2014) ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: an updated
systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Int J Epidemiol 43:434–442.
3. Harborne A, Wolpert M, Clare L (2004) Making sense of ADHD: a battle for understanding? Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 9:327–339.
4. Peters K, Jackson D (2009) Mothers’ experiences of parenting a child with ADHD. J Adv Nurs 65:62–71.
5. Faraone SV, Perlis RH, Doyle AE et al (2005) Molecular genetics of ADHD. Biol Psychiatry 57:1313–1323.
6. Larsson H, Chang Z, D’Onofrio BM, Lichtenstein P (2014) The heritability of clinically diagnosed ADHD across the lifespan. Psychol
Med 44:2223–2229.
7. Sprich S, Biederman J, Crawford MH, Mundy E, Faraone SV (2000) Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with
ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:1432–1437.
8. Demontis D, Walters RK, Martin J et al (2019) Discovery of the first genome-wide significant risk loci for ADHD. Nat Genet 51:63–
75.
9. Sonuga-Barke EJS, Oades RD, Psychogiou L et al (2009) Dopamine and serotonin transporter genotypes moderate sensitivity to
maternal expressed emotion. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 50:1052–1063.
10. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH (2011) Differential susceptibility to rearing environment depending on dopamine-
related genes. Dev Psychopathol 23:39–52.
11. Valera EM, Faraone SV, Murray KE, Seidman LJ (2007) Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in ADHD. Biol Psychiatry
61:1361–1369.
12. Hoogman M, Bralten J, Hibar DP et al (2017) Subcortical brain volume differences in participants with ADHD across the lifespan.
Lancet Psychiatry 4:310–319.
13. Cortese S, Kelly C, Chabernaud C et al (2012) Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD. Clin Neurosci Res 12:343–352.
14. Whittle S, Vijayakumar N, Simmons JG, Allen NB (2017) The role of the parenting environment in brain development. In: de Haan M,
Gunnar MR (eds) Handbook on developmental social neuroscience. Guilford Press, New York.
15. Thapar A, Rice F, Hay D et al (2009) Prenatal smoking might not cause ADHD: evidence from a novel design. Biol Psychiatry 66:722–
729.
16. Banerjee TD, Middleton F, Faraone SV (2007) Environmental risk factors for ADHD. Acta Paediatr 96:1269–1274.
17. Linnet KM, Dalsgaard S, Obel C et al (2003) Maternal lifestyle factors in pregnancy risk of ADHD. Am J Psychiatry 160:1028–1040.
18. Bhutta AT, Cleves MA, Casey PH, Cradock MM, Anand KJS (2002) Cognitive and behavioral outcomes of school-aged children who
were born preterm. JAMA 288:728–737.
19. Cecil CAM, Walton E, Barker ED (2022) Epigenetics and ADHD: reflections on current knowledge, research priorities and translational
potential. Mol Diagn Ther 26:581–606.
20. Hamza M, Halayem S, Bourgou S, Daoud M, Charfi F, Belhadj A (2019) Epigenetics and ADHD: toward an integrative approach of
the disorder pathogenesis. J Atten Disord 23:655–664.
21. Rijlaarsdam J, Cecil CAM, Walton E et al (2017) Prenatal unhealthy diet, IGF2 methylation, and ADHD symptoms in youth. J Am
Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 56:637–644.
22. Walton E, Pingault JB, Cecil CAM et al (2017) Epigenetic profiling of ADHD symptoms trajectories. Mol Psychiatry 22:250–256.
23. Perroud N, Zewdie S, Stenz L et al (2016) Methylation of serotonin receptor 3a in ADHD, borderline personality, and bipolar disorders.
Depress Anxiety 33:45–55.
24. Bettelheim B (1973) Bringing up children. Ladies’ Home J 90:28.
25. Patterson GR (1982) Coercive family process. Castalia, Eugene OR.
26. Bell RQ (1968) A reinterpretation of the direction of effects in studies of socialization. Psychol Rev 75:81–95.
27. Sameroff AJ (1975) Transactional models in early social relations. Hum Dev 18:65–79.
28. Sameroff AJ (2009) The transactional model of development: how children and contexts shape each other. American Psychological
Association, Washington DC.
29. Belsky J (1997) Theory testing, effect-size evaluation, and differential susceptibility to rearing influence. Child Dev 68:598–600.
30. Boyce WT, Ellis BJ (2005) Biological sensitivity to context. Dev Psychopathol 17:271–301.
31. Anderson CA, Hinshaw SP, Simmel C (1994) Mother–child interactions in ADHD and comparison boys. J Abnorm Child Psychol
22:247–265.
32. Johnston C, Mash EJ (2001) Families of children with ADHD: review and recommendations. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 4:183–207.
33. Deault LC (2010) A systematic review of parenting in relation to the development of comorbidities and functional impairments in
children with ADHD. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 41:168–192.
34. Kawabata Y, Alink LRA, Tseng WL, van IJzendoorn MH, Crick NR (2011) Maternal and paternal parenting styles associated with
relational aggression. J Fam Psychol 25:86–96.
35. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2004) Trajectories of physical aggression from toddlerhood to middle childhood. Monogr
Soc Res Child Dev 69:1–129.
36. Keown LJ (2012) Predictors of boys’ ADHD symptoms from early to middle childhood. J Abnorm Child Psychol 40:569–581.
37. Harold GT, Leve LD, Barrett D et al (2013) Biological and rearing mother influences on child ADHD symptoms. J Child Psychol
Psychiatry 54:1038–1046.
38. Lifford KJ, Harold GT, Thapar A (2009) Parent–child hostility and child ADHD symptoms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry
48:740–748.
39. Tully LA, Arseneault L, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Morgan J (2004) Does maternal warmth moderate the effects of birth weight on twins’
ADHD symptoms and low IQ? J Consult Clin Psychol 72:218–226.
40. Daley D, van der Oord S, Ferrin M et al (2014) Behavioral interventions in ADHD: a meta-analysis. J Am Acad Child Adolesc
Psychiatry 53:835–847.
41. Sonuga-Barke EJS, Daley D, Thompson M (2002) Does maternal ADHD reduce the effectiveness of parent training for preschool
children’s ADHD? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41:696–702.
42. Sonuga-Barke EJS, Brandeis D, Cortese S et al (2013) Nonpharmacological interventions for ADHD: systematic review and metaanalyses. Am J Psychiatry 170:275–289.
43. MTA Cooperative Group (1999) A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for ADHD. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56:1073–
1086.
44. Danforth JS, Barkley RA, Stokes TF (1991) Observations of parent–child interactions with hyperactive children. J Clin Child Psychol
20:388–394.
45. Barkley RA, Karlsson J, Pollard S, Murphy JV (1985) Effects of stimulant drug on the mother–child interactions of hyperactive children.
J Consult Clin Psychol 53:380–387.
46. Humphries T, Kinsbourne M, Swanson J (1978) Stimulant effects on cooperation and social interaction between hyperactive children
and their mothers. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 19:13–22.
47. Mash EJ, Johnston C (1990) Determinants of parenting stress. J Clin Child Psychol 19:313–328.
48. Theule J, Wiener J, Tannock R, Jenkins JM (2013) Parenting stress in families of children with ADHD: a meta-analysis. J Emot Behav
Disord 21:3–17.
49. Wiener J, Biondic D, Grimbos T, Herbert M (2016) Parenting stress of parents of adolescents with ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol
44:561–574.
50. Chronis AM, Lahey BB, Pelham WE et al (2004) Maternal depression and early positive parenting predict future conduct problems in
young children with ADHD. Dev Psychol 40:1058–1067.
51. Mash EJ, Johnston C (1983) Sibling interactions of hyperactive and normal children. J Clin Child Psychol 12:91–100.
52. Tarver J, Daley D, Sayal K (2014) Beyond symptom control for ADHD: what can parents do to improve outcomes? Child Care Health
Dev 40:1–14.
53. Burke JD, Loeber R, Birmaher B (2008) Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. In: Dulcan MK (ed) Textbook of child and
adolescent psychiatry. American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington DC, pp 377–404.
54. Lifford KJ, Harold GT, Thapar A (2008) Parent–child relationships and ADHD symptoms: a longitudinal analysis. J Abnorm Child
Psychol 36:285–296.
55. Zadeh ZY, Jenkins J, Pepler D (2010) A transactional analysis of maternal negativity and child externalizing behavior. Int J Behav Dev
34:218–228.
56. Williamson D, Johnston C, Noyes A, Stewart K, Weiss MD (2017) ADHD symptoms in mothers and fathers: family level interactions
in relation to parenting. J Abnorm Child Psychol 45:485–500.
57. Pappa I, Fedko IO, Mileva-Seitz VR et al (2015) Single nucleotide polymorphism heritability of behavior problems in childhood. J Am
Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 54:737–744.
58. Agnew-Blais JC, Belsky J, Caspi A (2021) Polygenic risk, parenting, and ADHD: a genetically informed analysis. J Child Psychol
Psychiatry 62:432–441.
59. Willcutt EG (2012) The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics
9:490–499.
60. Mowlem FD, Rosenqvist MA, Martin J, Lichtenstein P, Asherson P, Larsson H (2019) Sex differences in predicting ADHD clinical
diagnosis and pharmacological treatment. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 28:481–489.
61. Hinshaw SP, Nguyen PT, O’Grady SM, Rosenthal EA (2022) Annual research review: ADHD in girls and women. J Child Psychol
Psychiatry 63:484–496.
62. Russell AE, Ford T, Williams R, Russell G (2016) The association between socioeconomic disadvantage and ADHD: a systematic
review. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 47:440–458.
63. Bussing R, Zima BT, Gary FA, Garvan CW (2003) Barriers to detection, help-seeking, and service use for children with ADHD
symptoms. J Behav Health Serv Res 30:176–189.
64. Ra CK, Cho J, Stone MD et al (2018) Association of digital media use with subsequent symptoms of ADHD among adolescents. JAMA
320:255–263.
65. Steinberg L, Morris AS (2001) Adolescent development. Annu Rev Psychol 52:83–110.
66. Edwards G, Barkley RA, Laneri M, Fletcher K, Metevia L (2001) Parent–adolescent conflicts in teenagers with ADHD and ODD. J
Abnorm Child Psychol 29:557–572.
67. Molina BSG, Hinshaw SP, Swanson JM et al (2009) The MTA at 8 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48:484–500.
68. Norvilitis JM, Ingersoll T, Zhang J, Jia S (2010) Self-reported symptoms of ADHD among college students in China and the United
States. J Atten Disord 13:458–469.
69. Canino G, Alegría M (2008) Psychiatric diagnosis—is it universal or relative to culture? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 49:237–250.
70. Lansford JE, Chang L, Dodge KA et al (2005) Physical discipline and children’s adjustment: cultural normativeness as a moderator.
Child Dev 76:1234–1246.
71. Daley D, Birchwood J (2010) ADHD and academic performance. Child Care Health Dev 36:455–464.
72. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2018) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management (NICE
Guideline NG87). NICE, London.
73. van der Oord S, Bögels SM, Peijnenburg D (2012) The effectiveness of mindfulness training for children with ADHD and mindful
parenting for their parents. J Child Fam Stud 21:139–147.
74. Webster-Stratton C, Reid MJ, Beauchaine TP (2011) Combining parent and child training for young children with ADHD. J Clin Child
Adolesc Psychol 40:191–203.
75. Chronis-Tuscano A, O’Brien KA, Johnston C et al (2011) The relation between maternal ADHD symptoms and improvement in child
behavior following brief behavioral parent training. J Abnorm Child Psychol 39:1025–1036.
76. Baumel A, Pawar A, Kane JM, Correll CU (2016) Digital parent training for children with disruptive behaviors: systematic review and
meta-analysis. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 26:716–723.
77. Fabiano GA (2007) Father participation in behavioral parent training for ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35:842–852.
78. Park JL, Hudec KL, Johnston C (2017) Parental ADHD symptoms and parenting behaviors: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev
56:25–39.
Publishing, Washington DC.
2. Polanczyk GV, Willcutt EG, Salum GA, Kieling C, Rohde LA (2014) ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: an updated
systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Int J Epidemiol 43:434–442.
3. Harborne A, Wolpert M, Clare L (2004) Making sense of ADHD: a battle for understanding? Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 9:327–339.
4. Peters K, Jackson D (2009) Mothers’ experiences of parenting a child with ADHD. J Adv Nurs 65:62–71.
5. Faraone SV, Perlis RH, Doyle AE et al (2005) Molecular genetics of ADHD. Biol Psychiatry 57:1313–1323.
6. Larsson H, Chang Z, D’Onofrio BM, Lichtenstein P (2014) The heritability of clinically diagnosed ADHD across the lifespan. Psychol
Med 44:2223–2229.
7. Sprich S, Biederman J, Crawford MH, Mundy E, Faraone SV (2000) Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with
ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:1432–1437.
8. Demontis D, Walters RK, Martin J et al (2019) Discovery of the first genome-wide significant risk loci for ADHD. Nat Genet 51:63–
75.
9. Sonuga-Barke EJS, Oades RD, Psychogiou L et al (2009) Dopamine and serotonin transporter genotypes moderate sensitivity to
maternal expressed emotion. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 50:1052–1063.
10. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH (2011) Differential susceptibility to rearing environment depending on dopamine-
related genes. Dev Psychopathol 23:39–52.
11. Valera EM, Faraone SV, Murray KE, Seidman LJ (2007) Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in ADHD. Biol Psychiatry
61:1361–1369.
12. Hoogman M, Bralten J, Hibar DP et al (2017) Subcortical brain volume differences in participants with ADHD across the lifespan.
Lancet Psychiatry 4:310–319.
13. Cortese S, Kelly C, Chabernaud C et al (2012) Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD. Clin Neurosci Res 12:343–352.
14. Whittle S, Vijayakumar N, Simmons JG, Allen NB (2017) The role of the parenting environment in brain development. In: de Haan M,
Gunnar MR (eds) Handbook on developmental social neuroscience. Guilford Press, New York.
15. Thapar A, Rice F, Hay D et al (2009) Prenatal smoking might not cause ADHD: evidence from a novel design. Biol Psychiatry 66:722–
729.
16. Banerjee TD, Middleton F, Faraone SV (2007) Environmental risk factors for ADHD. Acta Paediatr 96:1269–1274.
17. Linnet KM, Dalsgaard S, Obel C et al (2003) Maternal lifestyle factors in pregnancy risk of ADHD. Am J Psychiatry 160:1028–1040.
18. Bhutta AT, Cleves MA, Casey PH, Cradock MM, Anand KJS (2002) Cognitive and behavioral outcomes of school-aged children who
were born preterm. JAMA 288:728–737.
19. Cecil CAM, Walton E, Barker ED (2022) Epigenetics and ADHD: reflections on current knowledge, research priorities and translational
potential. Mol Diagn Ther 26:581–606.
20. Hamza M, Halayem S, Bourgou S, Daoud M, Charfi F, Belhadj A (2019) Epigenetics and ADHD: toward an integrative approach of
the disorder pathogenesis. J Atten Disord 23:655–664.
21. Rijlaarsdam J, Cecil CAM, Walton E et al (2017) Prenatal unhealthy diet, IGF2 methylation, and ADHD symptoms in youth. J Am
Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 56:637–644.
22. Walton E, Pingault JB, Cecil CAM et al (2017) Epigenetic profiling of ADHD symptoms trajectories. Mol Psychiatry 22:250–256.
23. Perroud N, Zewdie S, Stenz L et al (2016) Methylation of serotonin receptor 3a in ADHD, borderline personality, and bipolar disorders.
Depress Anxiety 33:45–55.
24. Bettelheim B (1973) Bringing up children. Ladies’ Home J 90:28.
25. Patterson GR (1982) Coercive family process. Castalia, Eugene OR.
26. Bell RQ (1968) A reinterpretation of the direction of effects in studies of socialization. Psychol Rev 75:81–95.
27. Sameroff AJ (1975) Transactional models in early social relations. Hum Dev 18:65–79.
28. Sameroff AJ (2009) The transactional model of development: how children and contexts shape each other. American Psychological
Association, Washington DC.
29. Belsky J (1997) Theory testing, effect-size evaluation, and differential susceptibility to rearing influence. Child Dev 68:598–600.
30. Boyce WT, Ellis BJ (2005) Biological sensitivity to context. Dev Psychopathol 17:271–301.
31. Anderson CA, Hinshaw SP, Simmel C (1994) Mother–child interactions in ADHD and comparison boys. J Abnorm Child Psychol
22:247–265.
32. Johnston C, Mash EJ (2001) Families of children with ADHD: review and recommendations. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 4:183–207.
33. Deault LC (2010) A systematic review of parenting in relation to the development of comorbidities and functional impairments in
children with ADHD. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 41:168–192.
34. Kawabata Y, Alink LRA, Tseng WL, van IJzendoorn MH, Crick NR (2011) Maternal and paternal parenting styles associated with
relational aggression. J Fam Psychol 25:86–96.
35. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2004) Trajectories of physical aggression from toddlerhood to middle childhood. Monogr
Soc Res Child Dev 69:1–129.
36. Keown LJ (2012) Predictors of boys’ ADHD symptoms from early to middle childhood. J Abnorm Child Psychol 40:569–581.
37. Harold GT, Leve LD, Barrett D et al (2013) Biological and rearing mother influences on child ADHD symptoms. J Child Psychol
Psychiatry 54:1038–1046.
38. Lifford KJ, Harold GT, Thapar A (2009) Parent–child hostility and child ADHD symptoms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry
48:740–748.
39. Tully LA, Arseneault L, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Morgan J (2004) Does maternal warmth moderate the effects of birth weight on twins’
ADHD symptoms and low IQ? J Consult Clin Psychol 72:218–226.
40. Daley D, van der Oord S, Ferrin M et al (2014) Behavioral interventions in ADHD: a meta-analysis. J Am Acad Child Adolesc
Psychiatry 53:835–847.
41. Sonuga-Barke EJS, Daley D, Thompson M (2002) Does maternal ADHD reduce the effectiveness of parent training for preschool
children’s ADHD? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41:696–702.
42. Sonuga-Barke EJS, Brandeis D, Cortese S et al (2013) Nonpharmacological interventions for ADHD: systematic review and metaanalyses. Am J Psychiatry 170:275–289.
43. MTA Cooperative Group (1999) A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for ADHD. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56:1073–
1086.
44. Danforth JS, Barkley RA, Stokes TF (1991) Observations of parent–child interactions with hyperactive children. J Clin Child Psychol
20:388–394.
45. Barkley RA, Karlsson J, Pollard S, Murphy JV (1985) Effects of stimulant drug on the mother–child interactions of hyperactive children.
J Consult Clin Psychol 53:380–387.
46. Humphries T, Kinsbourne M, Swanson J (1978) Stimulant effects on cooperation and social interaction between hyperactive children
and their mothers. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 19:13–22.
47. Mash EJ, Johnston C (1990) Determinants of parenting stress. J Clin Child Psychol 19:313–328.
48. Theule J, Wiener J, Tannock R, Jenkins JM (2013) Parenting stress in families of children with ADHD: a meta-analysis. J Emot Behav
Disord 21:3–17.
49. Wiener J, Biondic D, Grimbos T, Herbert M (2016) Parenting stress of parents of adolescents with ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol
44:561–574.
50. Chronis AM, Lahey BB, Pelham WE et al (2004) Maternal depression and early positive parenting predict future conduct problems in
young children with ADHD. Dev Psychol 40:1058–1067.
51. Mash EJ, Johnston C (1983) Sibling interactions of hyperactive and normal children. J Clin Child Psychol 12:91–100.
52. Tarver J, Daley D, Sayal K (2014) Beyond symptom control for ADHD: what can parents do to improve outcomes? Child Care Health
Dev 40:1–14.
53. Burke JD, Loeber R, Birmaher B (2008) Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. In: Dulcan MK (ed) Textbook of child and
adolescent psychiatry. American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington DC, pp 377–404.
54. Lifford KJ, Harold GT, Thapar A (2008) Parent–child relationships and ADHD symptoms: a longitudinal analysis. J Abnorm Child
Psychol 36:285–296.
55. Zadeh ZY, Jenkins J, Pepler D (2010) A transactional analysis of maternal negativity and child externalizing behavior. Int J Behav Dev
34:218–228.
56. Williamson D, Johnston C, Noyes A, Stewart K, Weiss MD (2017) ADHD symptoms in mothers and fathers: family level interactions
in relation to parenting. J Abnorm Child Psychol 45:485–500.
57. Pappa I, Fedko IO, Mileva-Seitz VR et al (2015) Single nucleotide polymorphism heritability of behavior problems in childhood. J Am
Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 54:737–744.
58. Agnew-Blais JC, Belsky J, Caspi A (2021) Polygenic risk, parenting, and ADHD: a genetically informed analysis. J Child Psychol
Psychiatry 62:432–441.
59. Willcutt EG (2012) The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics
9:490–499.
60. Mowlem FD, Rosenqvist MA, Martin J, Lichtenstein P, Asherson P, Larsson H (2019) Sex differences in predicting ADHD clinical
diagnosis and pharmacological treatment. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 28:481–489.
61. Hinshaw SP, Nguyen PT, O’Grady SM, Rosenthal EA (2022) Annual research review: ADHD in girls and women. J Child Psychol
Psychiatry 63:484–496.
62. Russell AE, Ford T, Williams R, Russell G (2016) The association between socioeconomic disadvantage and ADHD: a systematic
review. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 47:440–458.
63. Bussing R, Zima BT, Gary FA, Garvan CW (2003) Barriers to detection, help-seeking, and service use for children with ADHD
symptoms. J Behav Health Serv Res 30:176–189.
64. Ra CK, Cho J, Stone MD et al (2018) Association of digital media use with subsequent symptoms of ADHD among adolescents. JAMA
320:255–263.
65. Steinberg L, Morris AS (2001) Adolescent development. Annu Rev Psychol 52:83–110.
66. Edwards G, Barkley RA, Laneri M, Fletcher K, Metevia L (2001) Parent–adolescent conflicts in teenagers with ADHD and ODD. J
Abnorm Child Psychol 29:557–572.
67. Molina BSG, Hinshaw SP, Swanson JM et al (2009) The MTA at 8 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48:484–500.
68. Norvilitis JM, Ingersoll T, Zhang J, Jia S (2010) Self-reported symptoms of ADHD among college students in China and the United
States. J Atten Disord 13:458–469.
69. Canino G, Alegría M (2008) Psychiatric diagnosis—is it universal or relative to culture? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 49:237–250.
70. Lansford JE, Chang L, Dodge KA et al (2005) Physical discipline and children’s adjustment: cultural normativeness as a moderator.
Child Dev 76:1234–1246.
71. Daley D, Birchwood J (2010) ADHD and academic performance. Child Care Health Dev 36:455–464.
72. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2018) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management (NICE
Guideline NG87). NICE, London.
73. van der Oord S, Bögels SM, Peijnenburg D (2012) The effectiveness of mindfulness training for children with ADHD and mindful
parenting for their parents. J Child Fam Stud 21:139–147.
74. Webster-Stratton C, Reid MJ, Beauchaine TP (2011) Combining parent and child training for young children with ADHD. J Clin Child
Adolesc Psychol 40:191–203.
75. Chronis-Tuscano A, O’Brien KA, Johnston C et al (2011) The relation between maternal ADHD symptoms and improvement in child
behavior following brief behavioral parent training. J Abnorm Child Psychol 39:1025–1036.
76. Baumel A, Pawar A, Kane JM, Correll CU (2016) Digital parent training for children with disruptive behaviors: systematic review and
meta-analysis. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 26:716–723.
77. Fabiano GA (2007) Father participation in behavioral parent training for ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35:842–852.
78. Park JL, Hudec KL, Johnston C (2017) Parental ADHD symptoms and parenting behaviors: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev
56:25–39.
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