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Review Article
Emerging therapeutic approaches in the Management of Parkinson’s Disease
Amarpreet Kaur1
Punita Manhas2
1 2 Department of Pharmacology, Rayat Bahra Institute of Pharmacy, Rayat Bahra Professional University, Punjab, India.
Published Online: March-April 2026
Pages: 51-57
Cite this article
↗ https://www.doi.org/10.59256/ijrtmr.20260602008References
1. Halli-Tierney AD, Luker J, Carroll DG. Parkinson disease. Am Fam Physician. 2020; 102:679-91.
2. Morris HR, Spillantini MG, Sue CM, Williams-Gray CH. The pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. Neurol Perspect. 2024; 4:100147.
3. Bloem BR, Okun MS, Klein C. Parkinson's disease. Lancet. 2021; 397:2284-303.
4. Poewe W, Seppi K, Tanner C, Halliday G, Brundin P, Volkmann J, et al. Parkinson’s disease. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2017; 3:17013.
5. Franco-Iborra S, Vila M, Perier C. Mitochondrial quality control in neurodegenerative diseases: focus on Parkinson's disease and
Huntington's disease. Front Neurosci. 2018; 12:342.
6. Balestrino R, Schapira AHV. Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurol. 2020; 27:27-42.
7. Poewe W, Antonini A, Zijlmans JC, Burkhard PR, Vingerhoets F. Levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease: an old drug still
going strong. Clin Interv Aging. 2010; 5:229-38.
8. Brooks DJ. Dopamine agonists: their role in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;68:685-9
9. Duopa--a carbidopa/levodopa enteral suspension for Parkinson’s disease. Med Lett Drugs Ther. 2015; 57:112.
10. Connolly BS, Lang AE. Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson disease: a review. JAMA. 2014; 311:1670-83.
11. Reiter RJ. Oxidative processes and p defense mechanisms in the aging brain. FASEB J. 1995; 9:526-33.
12. Krishna R, Ali M, Moustafa AA. Effects of combined MAO-B inhibitors and levodopa vs Monotherapy in Parkinson’s disease. Front
Aging Neurosci. 2014;6:180.
13. Schapira AH. Monoamine oxidase B inhibitors for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease: A Review of symptomatic and potential disease-
modifying effects. CNS Drugs. 2011; 25:1061-71.
14. Dezsi L, Vecsei L. Monoamine oxidase B inhibitors in Parkinson’s disease. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2017; 16:425-39.
15. Magyar K. The pharmacology of selegiline. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2011; 100:65-84.
16. Alborghetti M, Nicoletti F. Different generations of type-B monoamine oxidase inhibitors In Parkinson’s disease: from bench to bedside.
Curr Neuropharmacol. 2019; 17:861-73.
17. Youdim MB, Gross A, Finberg JP. Rasagiline [N-propargyl-1R (+)-aminoindan], a Selective and potent inhibitor of mitochondrial
monoamine oxidase B. Br J Pharmacol. 2001; 132:500-6.
18. Hattori N, Takeda A, Takeda S, Nishimura A, Kato M, Mochizuki H, et al. Efficacy and Safety of adjunctive rasagiline in Japanese
Parkinson’s disease patients with wearing-off Phenomena: A phase 2/3, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study.
Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2018; 53:21-7.
19. Fabbri M, Rosa MM, Abreu D, Ferreira JJ. Clinical pharmacology review of safinamide for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease.
Neurodegener Dis Manag. 2015; 5(6):481-96.
20. Stocchi F, Torti M. Adjuvant therapies for Parkinson’s disease: critical evaluation of Safinamide. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2016 Feb 5;
10:609-18.
21. Espinoza-Vinces C, Villino-Rodríguez R, Atorrasagasti-Villar A, Martí-Andrés G, Luquin MR. Impact of safinamide on patient-reported
outcomes in Parkinson’s disease. Patient Relat Outcome Meas. 2023; 14:285-95.
22. Song Z, Zhang J, Xue T, Yang Y, Wu D, Chen Z, et al. Different catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibitors in Parkinson’s disease: a
Bayesian network meta-analysis. Front Neurol 2021; 12:707723.
23. Kaakkola S, Teräväinen H, Ahtila S, Rita H, Gordin A. Effect of entacapone, a COMT inhibitor, on clinical disability and levodopa
metabolism in parkinsonian patients. Neurology. 1994; 44:77-80.
24. Nutt JG. Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors for treatment of Parkinson's disease. Lancet 1998; 351:1221-2.
25. Napolitano A, Del Dotto P, Petrozzi L, Lucetti C, Gambaccini G, Bernardini MC, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of l-
dopa after acute and 6-week tolcapone administration in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Clin Neuropharmacol 1999; 22:24-9.
26. Bausch Health US, LLC. Tasmar (tolcapone) tablets [package insert]. Bridgewater, NJ: Bausch Health US, LLC; 2020. [Updated 2020
Oct; cited 2026 Jan 14]. Available from: www.accessdata.fda.gov.
27. Davis TL, Roznoski M, Burns RS. Acute effects of COMT inhibition on L-DOPA pharmacokinetics in patients treated with carbidopa
and selegiline. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1995; 18:333-7.
28. Baas H, Beiske AG, Ghika J, Jackson M, Oertel WH, Poewe W, et al. Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibition with tolcapone reduces
the "wearing off" phenomenon and levodopa requirements in fluctuating parkinsonian patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;
63:421-8.
29. Verhagen Metman L, Del Dotto P, van den Munckhof P, Fang J, Mouradian MM, Chase TN. Amantadine as treatment for dyskinesias
and motor fluctuations in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 1998; 50:1323-6.
30. Goetz CG, Poewe W, Rascol O, Sampaio C. Evidence-based medical review update: pharmacological and surgical treatments of
Parkinson’s disease: 2001 to 2004. Mov Disord 2005; 20:523-39.
31. Pirker W, Katzenschlager R, Hallett M, Poewe W. Pharmacological treatment of tremor in Parkinson’s disease revisited. J Parkinsons
Dis. 2023; 13:127-44.
32. Aradi SD, Hauser RA. Medical management and prevention of motor complications in Parkinson’s disease. Neurotherapeutics. 2020;
17:1339-65.
33. Jana M, Biswas UK, Patra CS, Debnath B, Sharma S, Naskar S. Solid lipid nanoparticles: a review of their biomedical applications and
preparation. Pharm Nanotechnol. 2024; 12:1–17.
34. Alabrahim OAA, Azzazy HME-S. Polymeric nanoparticles for dopamine and levodopa replacement in Parkinson’s disease. Nanoscale
Adv. 2022; 4:5233–44.
35. Kaushik AC, Bharadwaj S, Kumar S, Wei DQ. Nano-particle mediated inhibition of Parkinson’s disease using computational biology
approach. Sci Rep. 2018; 8:9169.
36. Demirel E, Yuksel Durmaz Y. PEGylated reduced graphene oxide as nanoplatform for targeted gene and drug delivery. Eur Polym J.
2023; 186:111841.
37. Rao N, Singh R, Bashambu L. Carbon-based nanomaterials: Synthesis and prospective applications. Mater Today Proc. 2021; 44:608-14.
38. Raghavan A, Ghosh S. Influence of graphene-based nanocomposites in neurogenesis and neuritogenesis: a brief summary. ACS Appl Bio
Mater. 2024; 7:711-26.
39. Silva S, Almeida AJ, Vale N. Importance of nanoparticles for the delivery of antiparkinsonian drugs. Pharmaceutics. 2021 Apr 7; 13:508.40. Poudel P, Park S. Recent advances in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease using nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems. Pharmaceutics
2022; 14:835.
41. Rout J, Swain BC, Mishra PP, Treaty U. Spectroscopic insight into the interaction of dopamine with spherical gold nanoparticles. J
Photochem Photobiol B. 2020; 203:111770.
42. Naz F, Rahul, Fatima M, Naseem S, Khan W, Mondal AC, Siddique YH. Ropinirole silver nanocomposite attenuates neurodegeneration
in the transgenic Drosophila melanogaster model of Parkinson’s disease. Neuropharmacology 2020; 177:108216.
43. Srivastava A, Srivastava P, Pandey A, Khanna VK, Pant AB. Phytomedicine: a potential alternative medicine in controlling neurological
disorders. In: Khan MSA, Ahmad I, Chattopadhyay D, editors. New look to phytomedicine: advancements in herbal products as novel
drug leads. London: Academic Press; 2019. p. 625-55.
44. Chaturvedi RK, Shukla S, Seth K, Agrawal AK, Seth PK.. Neuroprotective and neurorescue effect of black tea extract in 6-
hydroxydopamine-lesioned rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Neurobiol Dis 2006; 22:421-34.
45. Kumar GP, Khanum F. Neuroprotective potential of phytochemicals. Pharmacognosy Rev. 2012; 6:81-90.
46. Ramassamy C. Emerging role of polyphenolic compounds in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases: a review of their intracellular
targets. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006; 545:51-64.
47. Xiang HH, Seong SH, Ji SH, Myung KL, Bang YH, Ro JS. Monoamine oxidase inhibitory components from Cayratia japonica. Arch
Pharm Res 2007; 30:13-7.
48. Mani R, Natesan V. Chrysin: sources, beneficial pharmacological activities, and molecular mechanism of action. Phytochemistry. 2018;
145:187-96.
49. Chu KO, Chan SO, Pang CP, Wang CC. Pro-oxidative and antioxidative controls and signaling modification of polyphenolic
phytochemicals: contribution to health promotion and disease prevention? J Agric Food Chem. 2014; 62:4026-38.
50. Lee G, Jeon S, Jeong M, Kim H, Jang I. Review of the antioxidant effect of herbal material in in vivo Parkinson's disease models. J Intern
Korean Med. 2020; 4:993-1014.
51. Singh A, Tripathi P, Yadawa AK, Singh S. Promising polyphenols in Parkinson’s disease therapeutics. Neurochem Res. 2020; 45:1731-
45.
52. Akbari B, Baghaei-Yazdi N, Bahmaie M, Mahdavi Abhari F. The role of plant-derived natural antioxidants in reduction of oxidative
stress. BioFactors. 2022; 48:611-33.
53. Wang J, Song Y, Chen Z, Leng SX. Connection between systemic inflammation and neuroinflammation underlies neuroprotective
mechanism of several phytochemicals in neurodegenerative diseases. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2018; 2018:1972714.
54. Nebrisi EE. Neuroprotective activities of curcumin in Parkinson’s disease: a review of the literature. Int J Mol Sci. 2021; 22:11248.
55. Patel A, Olang CA, Lewis G, Mandalaneni K, Anand N, Gorantla VR. An overview of Parkinson’s disease: curcumin as a possible
alternative treatment. Cureus. 2022; 14:25032.
56. Rawat A, Mali RR. Phytochemical properties and pharmcological activities of Nicotiana tabacum: a review. Indian J Pharm Biol Res.
2013; 1:74-82.
57. Fagerstrom KO, Pomerleau O, Giordani B, Stelson F. Nicotine may relieve symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Psychopharmacology (Berl).
1994; 116:117-9.
58. Herzog J, Fietzek U, Hamel W, Morsnowski A, Steigerwald F, Schrader B. Most effective stimulation site in subthalamic deep brain
stimulation for Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2004; 19:1050-4.
59. Pandey S. When to do deep brain stimulation surgery in Parkinson disease? Early or late? Neurol India. 2016; 64:8-9.
60. Ter Haar G, Coussios C. High intensity focused ultrasound: physical principles and devices. Int J Hyperthermia. 2007; 23:89-104.
61. Walter BL, Vitek JL. Surgical treatment for Parkinson’s disease. Lancet Neurol. 2004; 3:719-28.
62. Cosman E, Nashold B, Bedenbaugh P. Stereotactic radiofrequency lesion making. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1983; 46:160-6.
63. Cosman E Sr, Cosman E Jr. Radiofrequency lesions. In: Lozano AM, Gildenberg PL, Tasker RR, editors. Textbook of stereotactic and
functional neurosurgery. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 2009. p. 1359-82.
64. De Salles AA, Gorgulho AA, Pereira JL, Behnke EJ. Intracranial stereotactic radiosurgery: concepts and techniques. Neurosurg Clin N
Am. 2013; 24:491-8.
65. Sharma VD, Patel M, Miocinovic S. Surgical treatment of Parkinson’s disease: devices and lesion approaches. Neurotherapeutics. 2020;
17:1525-38.
66. Walters H, Shah BB. Focused ultrasound and other lesioning therapies in movement disorders. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2019; 19:66.
67. Ter Haar G, Coussios C. High intensity focused ultrasound: physical principles and devices. Int J Hyperthermia. 2007; 23:89-104.
2. Morris HR, Spillantini MG, Sue CM, Williams-Gray CH. The pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. Neurol Perspect. 2024; 4:100147.
3. Bloem BR, Okun MS, Klein C. Parkinson's disease. Lancet. 2021; 397:2284-303.
4. Poewe W, Seppi K, Tanner C, Halliday G, Brundin P, Volkmann J, et al. Parkinson’s disease. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2017; 3:17013.
5. Franco-Iborra S, Vila M, Perier C. Mitochondrial quality control in neurodegenerative diseases: focus on Parkinson's disease and
Huntington's disease. Front Neurosci. 2018; 12:342.
6. Balestrino R, Schapira AHV. Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurol. 2020; 27:27-42.
7. Poewe W, Antonini A, Zijlmans JC, Burkhard PR, Vingerhoets F. Levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease: an old drug still
going strong. Clin Interv Aging. 2010; 5:229-38.
8. Brooks DJ. Dopamine agonists: their role in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;68:685-9
9. Duopa--a carbidopa/levodopa enteral suspension for Parkinson’s disease. Med Lett Drugs Ther. 2015; 57:112.
10. Connolly BS, Lang AE. Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson disease: a review. JAMA. 2014; 311:1670-83.
11. Reiter RJ. Oxidative processes and p defense mechanisms in the aging brain. FASEB J. 1995; 9:526-33.
12. Krishna R, Ali M, Moustafa AA. Effects of combined MAO-B inhibitors and levodopa vs Monotherapy in Parkinson’s disease. Front
Aging Neurosci. 2014;6:180.
13. Schapira AH. Monoamine oxidase B inhibitors for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease: A Review of symptomatic and potential disease-
modifying effects. CNS Drugs. 2011; 25:1061-71.
14. Dezsi L, Vecsei L. Monoamine oxidase B inhibitors in Parkinson’s disease. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2017; 16:425-39.
15. Magyar K. The pharmacology of selegiline. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2011; 100:65-84.
16. Alborghetti M, Nicoletti F. Different generations of type-B monoamine oxidase inhibitors In Parkinson’s disease: from bench to bedside.
Curr Neuropharmacol. 2019; 17:861-73.
17. Youdim MB, Gross A, Finberg JP. Rasagiline [N-propargyl-1R (+)-aminoindan], a Selective and potent inhibitor of mitochondrial
monoamine oxidase B. Br J Pharmacol. 2001; 132:500-6.
18. Hattori N, Takeda A, Takeda S, Nishimura A, Kato M, Mochizuki H, et al. Efficacy and Safety of adjunctive rasagiline in Japanese
Parkinson’s disease patients with wearing-off Phenomena: A phase 2/3, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study.
Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2018; 53:21-7.
19. Fabbri M, Rosa MM, Abreu D, Ferreira JJ. Clinical pharmacology review of safinamide for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease.
Neurodegener Dis Manag. 2015; 5(6):481-96.
20. Stocchi F, Torti M. Adjuvant therapies for Parkinson’s disease: critical evaluation of Safinamide. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2016 Feb 5;
10:609-18.
21. Espinoza-Vinces C, Villino-Rodríguez R, Atorrasagasti-Villar A, Martí-Andrés G, Luquin MR. Impact of safinamide on patient-reported
outcomes in Parkinson’s disease. Patient Relat Outcome Meas. 2023; 14:285-95.
22. Song Z, Zhang J, Xue T, Yang Y, Wu D, Chen Z, et al. Different catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibitors in Parkinson’s disease: a
Bayesian network meta-analysis. Front Neurol 2021; 12:707723.
23. Kaakkola S, Teräväinen H, Ahtila S, Rita H, Gordin A. Effect of entacapone, a COMT inhibitor, on clinical disability and levodopa
metabolism in parkinsonian patients. Neurology. 1994; 44:77-80.
24. Nutt JG. Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors for treatment of Parkinson's disease. Lancet 1998; 351:1221-2.
25. Napolitano A, Del Dotto P, Petrozzi L, Lucetti C, Gambaccini G, Bernardini MC, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of l-
dopa after acute and 6-week tolcapone administration in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Clin Neuropharmacol 1999; 22:24-9.
26. Bausch Health US, LLC. Tasmar (tolcapone) tablets [package insert]. Bridgewater, NJ: Bausch Health US, LLC; 2020. [Updated 2020
Oct; cited 2026 Jan 14]. Available from: www.accessdata.fda.gov.
27. Davis TL, Roznoski M, Burns RS. Acute effects of COMT inhibition on L-DOPA pharmacokinetics in patients treated with carbidopa
and selegiline. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1995; 18:333-7.
28. Baas H, Beiske AG, Ghika J, Jackson M, Oertel WH, Poewe W, et al. Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibition with tolcapone reduces
the "wearing off" phenomenon and levodopa requirements in fluctuating parkinsonian patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;
63:421-8.
29. Verhagen Metman L, Del Dotto P, van den Munckhof P, Fang J, Mouradian MM, Chase TN. Amantadine as treatment for dyskinesias
and motor fluctuations in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 1998; 50:1323-6.
30. Goetz CG, Poewe W, Rascol O, Sampaio C. Evidence-based medical review update: pharmacological and surgical treatments of
Parkinson’s disease: 2001 to 2004. Mov Disord 2005; 20:523-39.
31. Pirker W, Katzenschlager R, Hallett M, Poewe W. Pharmacological treatment of tremor in Parkinson’s disease revisited. J Parkinsons
Dis. 2023; 13:127-44.
32. Aradi SD, Hauser RA. Medical management and prevention of motor complications in Parkinson’s disease. Neurotherapeutics. 2020;
17:1339-65.
33. Jana M, Biswas UK, Patra CS, Debnath B, Sharma S, Naskar S. Solid lipid nanoparticles: a review of their biomedical applications and
preparation. Pharm Nanotechnol. 2024; 12:1–17.
34. Alabrahim OAA, Azzazy HME-S. Polymeric nanoparticles for dopamine and levodopa replacement in Parkinson’s disease. Nanoscale
Adv. 2022; 4:5233–44.
35. Kaushik AC, Bharadwaj S, Kumar S, Wei DQ. Nano-particle mediated inhibition of Parkinson’s disease using computational biology
approach. Sci Rep. 2018; 8:9169.
36. Demirel E, Yuksel Durmaz Y. PEGylated reduced graphene oxide as nanoplatform for targeted gene and drug delivery. Eur Polym J.
2023; 186:111841.
37. Rao N, Singh R, Bashambu L. Carbon-based nanomaterials: Synthesis and prospective applications. Mater Today Proc. 2021; 44:608-14.
38. Raghavan A, Ghosh S. Influence of graphene-based nanocomposites in neurogenesis and neuritogenesis: a brief summary. ACS Appl Bio
Mater. 2024; 7:711-26.
39. Silva S, Almeida AJ, Vale N. Importance of nanoparticles for the delivery of antiparkinsonian drugs. Pharmaceutics. 2021 Apr 7; 13:508.40. Poudel P, Park S. Recent advances in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease using nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems. Pharmaceutics
2022; 14:835.
41. Rout J, Swain BC, Mishra PP, Treaty U. Spectroscopic insight into the interaction of dopamine with spherical gold nanoparticles. J
Photochem Photobiol B. 2020; 203:111770.
42. Naz F, Rahul, Fatima M, Naseem S, Khan W, Mondal AC, Siddique YH. Ropinirole silver nanocomposite attenuates neurodegeneration
in the transgenic Drosophila melanogaster model of Parkinson’s disease. Neuropharmacology 2020; 177:108216.
43. Srivastava A, Srivastava P, Pandey A, Khanna VK, Pant AB. Phytomedicine: a potential alternative medicine in controlling neurological
disorders. In: Khan MSA, Ahmad I, Chattopadhyay D, editors. New look to phytomedicine: advancements in herbal products as novel
drug leads. London: Academic Press; 2019. p. 625-55.
44. Chaturvedi RK, Shukla S, Seth K, Agrawal AK, Seth PK.. Neuroprotective and neurorescue effect of black tea extract in 6-
hydroxydopamine-lesioned rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Neurobiol Dis 2006; 22:421-34.
45. Kumar GP, Khanum F. Neuroprotective potential of phytochemicals. Pharmacognosy Rev. 2012; 6:81-90.
46. Ramassamy C. Emerging role of polyphenolic compounds in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases: a review of their intracellular
targets. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006; 545:51-64.
47. Xiang HH, Seong SH, Ji SH, Myung KL, Bang YH, Ro JS. Monoamine oxidase inhibitory components from Cayratia japonica. Arch
Pharm Res 2007; 30:13-7.
48. Mani R, Natesan V. Chrysin: sources, beneficial pharmacological activities, and molecular mechanism of action. Phytochemistry. 2018;
145:187-96.
49. Chu KO, Chan SO, Pang CP, Wang CC. Pro-oxidative and antioxidative controls and signaling modification of polyphenolic
phytochemicals: contribution to health promotion and disease prevention? J Agric Food Chem. 2014; 62:4026-38.
50. Lee G, Jeon S, Jeong M, Kim H, Jang I. Review of the antioxidant effect of herbal material in in vivo Parkinson's disease models. J Intern
Korean Med. 2020; 4:993-1014.
51. Singh A, Tripathi P, Yadawa AK, Singh S. Promising polyphenols in Parkinson’s disease therapeutics. Neurochem Res. 2020; 45:1731-
45.
52. Akbari B, Baghaei-Yazdi N, Bahmaie M, Mahdavi Abhari F. The role of plant-derived natural antioxidants in reduction of oxidative
stress. BioFactors. 2022; 48:611-33.
53. Wang J, Song Y, Chen Z, Leng SX. Connection between systemic inflammation and neuroinflammation underlies neuroprotective
mechanism of several phytochemicals in neurodegenerative diseases. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2018; 2018:1972714.
54. Nebrisi EE. Neuroprotective activities of curcumin in Parkinson’s disease: a review of the literature. Int J Mol Sci. 2021; 22:11248.
55. Patel A, Olang CA, Lewis G, Mandalaneni K, Anand N, Gorantla VR. An overview of Parkinson’s disease: curcumin as a possible
alternative treatment. Cureus. 2022; 14:25032.
56. Rawat A, Mali RR. Phytochemical properties and pharmcological activities of Nicotiana tabacum: a review. Indian J Pharm Biol Res.
2013; 1:74-82.
57. Fagerstrom KO, Pomerleau O, Giordani B, Stelson F. Nicotine may relieve symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Psychopharmacology (Berl).
1994; 116:117-9.
58. Herzog J, Fietzek U, Hamel W, Morsnowski A, Steigerwald F, Schrader B. Most effective stimulation site in subthalamic deep brain
stimulation for Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2004; 19:1050-4.
59. Pandey S. When to do deep brain stimulation surgery in Parkinson disease? Early or late? Neurol India. 2016; 64:8-9.
60. Ter Haar G, Coussios C. High intensity focused ultrasound: physical principles and devices. Int J Hyperthermia. 2007; 23:89-104.
61. Walter BL, Vitek JL. Surgical treatment for Parkinson’s disease. Lancet Neurol. 2004; 3:719-28.
62. Cosman E, Nashold B, Bedenbaugh P. Stereotactic radiofrequency lesion making. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1983; 46:160-6.
63. Cosman E Sr, Cosman E Jr. Radiofrequency lesions. In: Lozano AM, Gildenberg PL, Tasker RR, editors. Textbook of stereotactic and
functional neurosurgery. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 2009. p. 1359-82.
64. De Salles AA, Gorgulho AA, Pereira JL, Behnke EJ. Intracranial stereotactic radiosurgery: concepts and techniques. Neurosurg Clin N
Am. 2013; 24:491-8.
65. Sharma VD, Patel M, Miocinovic S. Surgical treatment of Parkinson’s disease: devices and lesion approaches. Neurotherapeutics. 2020;
17:1525-38.
66. Walters H, Shah BB. Focused ultrasound and other lesioning therapies in movement disorders. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2019; 19:66.
67. Ter Haar G, Coussios C. High intensity focused ultrasound: physical principles and devices. Int J Hyperthermia. 2007; 23:89-104.
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